The Concept of New Media

The Concept of New Media THE CONCEPT OF NEW MEDIA New Media as a term cannot be described by a single, uniform definition. This is because the concept of New Media evolves along with the development of technology and as the modes of communication progress and become in many ways, more instant. The concept of New Media takes definite form when the comparison between the old and the new mediums of communication takes place. In the present age, the mediums of television, recorders, radio and paper books have taken a back stage and the electronic mediums of communication have emerged triumphant. Today, the most popular and most instantaneous means of communication is the Internet which is the core element distinguishing new media from other forms. The popular definition of New Media is recognized with the use of a computer for the means of distribution and exhibition, by way of the internet, rather than with production. Thus, texts distributed via a computer are considered as New Media whereas those printed on paper, without the use of the computer and the internet are not. This Lev Monovich has labeled as the ‘culture of computerization.’[1] According to Monovich, the computer encompasses all mediums/methods of communication and affects all types of media, text, still images, moving images, sound and special constructions.[2] However, Monovich himself states that limiting the advent of New Media to the device of a computer is too limiting. Monovich lays down the following principles that determine new Media[3] – Numerical Representation Monovich states that all types and forms of New Media can be described mathematically, that is in terms of the binary code and so are numerical representations. Therefore, by applying appropriate algorithms, New Media can be manipulated. A cinematograph film for example is a sequence of images/frames, each of which has its own numerical representation.[4] Modularity This is also known as the ‘fractal structure of New Media’. Media elements consist of pixels, bites, characters, scripts, voxels etc, each of which combine to create the larger image, that is, what we see. However, each one retains its independent identity separate from the whole. Going back to the example of the cinematograph film, each frame would be independently created and would thereafter be combined together to create the whole cinematograph work. However, a single frame can thereafter be removed, altered or deleted without having an effect on the whole ‘work’. Automation The above two principles, that is Numerical representation and Modularity allow the work to be automated in many operations. For example, in cinematograph films software is programmed to automatically produce artificial life such as crowds of people as required in the film. Another more common example is when a computer automatically generates web pages when the user reaches the site. Variability An object of New Media is parallel to the idea of liquid. New media is not fixed in one definite format but can exist in a myriad of versions. New Media frequently changes as it is stored digitally with a numerical code. Thus, variability is a consequence of principle 1 – numerical representation and principle 2 – modularity. In order to get clarity, one can compare old media with new media. Old Media is created by a human creator who manually assembles the test, the images, and the video and audio elements in one particular format which then becomes fixed for perpetuity. Copies of the work can be made, but only identical copies can be made. In contrast, New Media, which constitutes numerous codes, changes each time it is generated. This is because, after it is created by the human creator, New Media then begins to be generated automatically which is what results in different versions. As New Media is stored digitally, in contrast to a fixed medium, each element retains its separate identity which can then be assembled into numerous sequences under the program’s control. Variability of New Media is created due to the following factors [5]– Media elements are stored on a media database Each time Media is created, different elements are used along with different numerical coding New Media can be displayed using a number of different interfaces The information about the user can be used by a computer program to automatically generate and customize the media composition New Media is through branching/menu based interactivity thus allowing the user to choose. This is when a user enters a programme; the user is given a number of options to choose from. The branch next advanced to in the program would depend upon the choice made by the user which for each user would not necessarily be the same. New Media contains objects that are periodically updated. Transcoding The fifth principle is the most significant, the cultural transcoding of media. This means that all data is turned into computerized data. While on the one hand computerized media still displays structural organization which is comprehensive to the users such as images, texts etc. on the other hand media follows the conventional structure of a computer’s organization of data. Therefore, New Media can be seen as two distinct layers, the ‘culture layer’ and the ‘computer layer’. The layer that can be viewed as a representation is the culture layer and the operating functions are the computer layer. Lev Manovich, in his introduction toThe New Media Reader, defined New Media by using eight propositions: Today, the increasingly rapid change in technological development is leading to rapidly changing forms of new media thus leading to new and unexpected methods of distributing and exhibiting copyrighted work. Methods of distribution or exhibition are constantly evolving and are modernizing hence giving old content new form and value. For example, the exhibition of performing arts has evolved from theater to pictures, television, videocassettes, LDs, DVDS, streamed videos and then to cell phone formats and tablet formats. A similar scenario has been witnessed in the music industry where the method of storing the data recorded has changed. Copyright Law, including the Copyright Act, 1957 grants authors an exclusive right over their creations.[6] Copyright in a work lasts for long durations. Section 22 of the Act states that â€Å"Copyright shall subsist in any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work published within the lifetime of the author until sixty years from the beginning of the calendar year next following the year in which the author dies.† During this time, the value of the work and the circumstances surrounding its distribution would be liable to change considerably. To get a full understanding of the concept imagine that a newspaper publisher wants to release a compilation of articles on a CD-ROM and simultaneously wants to create an online database. There would be a possibility that a number of the authors would not be alive to give their consent to such distribution of their work. Finding the right holders to all articles to get them to agree to re-release the works would be prohibitively diff icult. Copyright laws across the globe have not enunciated on the copyright protection of ever-changing New Media. Thus, New Media will prove to be a highly contentious issue due to the gaping loophole in the law. As India has not expressly dealt with the issue of New Media as a challenge to copyright law this chapter will look at legislative reasoning in other countries before drawing a conclusion as to what India’s legislative development shall be in this respect. The legal landscape with respect to new use rights is bifurcated into two. While USA and the UK recognize new use rights and generally allow the free transfer of rights to unknown uses of copyrighted works, copyright grants are restricted in Germany, Spain, Belgium. CHAPTER___ COPYRIGHT PROTECTION OF TWEETS AND FACEBOOK POSTS Twitter along with Facebook epitomizes the term ‘social networking sites’ which allows a user to create a profile and regularly interact with other users. While Facebook allows posts and images to be uploaded on a user’s profile, Twitter is a real time application that allows public contact amongst the users. Thus, in the Internet age, Twitter and Facebook are the most commonly used social networking sites. Copyright issues with respect to one site will apply equally to the other site. Therefore, for discussion sake, the example of Twitter is chosen. ‘Tweets’, the posts by users on the site, are relatively simple as a mechanism. They are short in length as they cannot exceed 140 characters and on a general basis answer only one question.[7] Users on Twitter share stories, facts, information, breaking news, updates on world events, entertainment, sports etc. Twitter users can follow other users or vice versa and updated tweets would appear as and when they are posted.[8] Twitter, via its terms of service, declares that the user retains his/her rights to any content posted[9], therefore Twitter states that the user is entitled to the Intellectual Property Rights that get vested with the user as a result of any post. Alternatively, by signing up as a user on the Twitter website and making the content available to the public by posting tweets, the user grants a license to Twitter. The license includes Twitter’s right to make the content available to other organizations, companies etc.[10] Whether tweets on Twitter are copyrightable has, till date, not been a contentious issue in India. However, in the United States the copyrightability of tweets has been under debate. Therefore, to be able to culminate in a satisfactory answer, we first need to see whether a Tweet/post satisfies the requirements of the Federal Copyright Act. I will simultaneously transpose a similar argument in the Indian context. As per Section 102(a) of the Act, original works of authorship that are fixed in a tangible medium of expression, whether now known or later developed, are protected. Therefore, the pre-requisites for copyright protection under the Federal Act and the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 are – Originality The term ‘original’ has not been defined either under the Federal Act or under the Act of 1957. However, Section 13(1)(a) of the 1957 Act states that copyright shall subsist in ‘original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works;’ which is indicative that copyright shall only extend to works that are the fruits of a person’s labour and skill. In the United States, it was observed in Alfred Bell Co. v. Catalda Fine Arts[11] that the term â€Å"’Original in reference to a copyrighted work means that the particular work ‘owes its origin’ to the author†. Further, in the landmark judgment of Feist Publications Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co.[12] it was observed that originality work that is directly attributable to the skill and labour of the author and that the work in question is independently created and is not a mere copy.[13] In order to be protected under the Copyright Act, 1957, a work must satisfy the criteria of ‘work’ as defined in Section 2(y) of the Act. In University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press[14] J. Peterson held that the word original does not imply that the work must be the expression of original or inventive thought. Originality as interpreted with respect to copyright protection relates to the expression of thought.[15] For a work to be considered original under the Copyright Act, it is sufficient if the contribution is minimal or poor. Work of Authorship The second pre-requisite for copyright protection to apply to any work is that the work must be a ‘work of authorship’. (continue) Fixation in a tangible medium The third element that is required for copyright protection is that a work is deemed created when it is first fixed, that is given a tangible form. This is parallel to the concept that an idea is not copyrightable but the expression of that idea is entitled to copyright protection.[16] Thus, if the idea is not made into a tangible medium, i.e. expressed, it cannot be protected by way of copyright. For example, in the field of literary work, the idea of the novel would not be copyrightable, but when the idea is expressed on paper in the particular manner of the author; fixation of the work would take place. For copyright protection, the medium, form and method of fixation of the work is not substantially consequential. Tweets create a challenge to the Copyright law and its application. However, the fact that Twitter’s Terms of Service include a Copyright Policy is indicative of the fact that the content on Twitter, including tweets, is copyrightable.[17] However, for a particular tweet to be entitled to copyright protection a tweet needs to satisfy the 3 basic requirements given above, a tweet must be an original work, it must be the work of the author and it must be in a fixed, tangible form. Whether a Tweet is entitled to Copyright Protection? To establish whether a tweet is entitled to Copyright Protection the following points are established – A tweet is an original work as the work is independently created. The users of Twitter post a tweet that is the result of their skill and labour. The Tweet meets the originality threshold stated in Alfred Bell Co.[18]however there is no specific reference to determine whether all Tweets are original. However, is it safe to say that some Tweets are original. As a corollary, it is seen that a tweet is a creative work. In Fiest it was held that the work must contain a modicum of creativity, â€Å"No matter how crude, humble or obvious ‘it might be.†[19]However, Phrases and words that have common, widespread usage cannot be copyrighted. A tweet is a literary work as stated under the Acts. As the term literary in the Federal Act connotes neither literary merit nor qualitative value, the term literary can have an expansive interpretation. Applying this standard, all tweets qualify as literary work. Further, to constitute a work of authorship, the work should be based on intellectual labour for which the content of the tweet must be examined. Generic, common phrases and questions cannot be works of authorship as they require no intellect in their expression. However, a poem, an expression, a joke is tweeted would be works of authorship because the work would be the result of intellectual labour as well as a literary work. A tweet is fixed in a tangible medium i.e., Twitter. Tweets cannot be viewed without the aid of a computer or any other device that can be connected to the internet.[20] Nevertheless, Twitter users face many challenges in meeting the three pre-requisites for copyright protection. This is due to the following reasons[21] – Size Tweets are very short in length, with a limit of 140 characters. Therefore, the word limit makes it impossible for the work to reach the level of creativity which is required for copyright protection. Content – It is well established that facts are not copyrightable. Tweets are mainly regarding notifications, events, gossip, and comments on political situations etc. Copyright law does not extend protection to facts and so tweets, despite their varying expressions, cannot be copyrighted. Scenes a faire – Tweets describe events, affairs, circumstances, scenes which cannot be expressed in more than a limited number of ways. For example, a tweet regarding the sunset will describe the sun as brilliant, or sunny, or bright. When an idea can be expressed in only a limited number of ways, such expression cannot be copyrighted as providing copyright protection to such an expression would be providing copyright protection to the idea itself.[22] Copyright in Quotes and Short Phrases Protection by way of Intellectual property rights over the most minimal of creative work has been regularly debated. Copyright protection of brand names, slogans, advertising mantras etc. have become a contentious issue. Courts are forever embroiled in the task of breaking down the exact meaning of the definitions provided in the statute. To get a better understanding of the boundaries of protection by the Act of 1957 some of the definitions provided are required to be repeated. Section 13 of the 1957 Act lays down that copyright protection is accorded on literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works, cinematograph films and sound recordings. Rights as provided in the statute can be exercised only by the owner of the copyright.[23] Quotes and short phrases are of two types. One type is cutting a small part from a longer sentence, example a book whereas the other type is when the quote stands on its own in entirety. Tweets would be form of the second type of quote/short phrases. Copyright protection to short phrases and quotes has been refused in a number of cases by the Indian courts. To claim a copyright infringement, the de minimis standard must be satisfied. Courts have refused to grant protection to slogans in advertisements, newspaper headlines for there is no copyright in a mere collection of words that is not a compilation. In this matter the law of trademark infringement and passing off has proved to be more useful. The underlying reason is that although such short phrases may be considered ‘works’ but they are unable to satisfy the requirement of originality. Leading case laws by the English and Indian courts have expounded upon this matter. [1] Lex Monovich, â€Å"Language of New Media† MIT Press, 2001. Pg.43 [2] Id. [3] Id. Pg. 49 [4] Id. Pg. 50 [5] Id. Pg. 57 [6] Section 14 of the Copyright Act, 1957: â€Å". . â€Å"copyright† means the exclusive right subject to the provisions of this Act. .† [7] Rebecca Haas, Twitter: New Challenges to Copyright Law in the Internet Age, 10 J. Marshall Rev. Intell. Prop. L.231 (2010) , pg. 236 [8] Id [9] You retain your rights to any Content you submit, post or display on or through the Services. By submitting, posting or displaying Content on or through the Services, you grant us a worldwide, non-exclusive, royalty-free license (with the right to sublicense) to use, copy, reproduce, process, adapt, modify, publish, transmit, display and distribute such Content in any and all media or distribution methods (now known or later developed) https://twitter.com/tos (Twitter Terms of Service) – Last Accessed – 8/04/2014 [10] Supra n. 3, pg. 237 (Rebecca Haas) [11] 191 F.2d 99, 103 (2nd Cir. 1951) [12] 499 U.S 340, 351-52 (1991) [13] Rebecca Haas, pg. 238 [14] 1916] 2 Ch 601. The case involved the copying of mathematic questions, which were held to be original for the purposes of copyright law [15] Tissya Mandal. â€Å"Copyright in quotes† available at – http://ssrn.com.abstract=1818985 [16] Id. [17] Supra n. 5 Twitter Copyright Policy states: Twitter respects the intellectual property rights of others and expects users of the Services to do the same. We will respond to notices of alleged copyright infringement that comply with applicable law and are properly provided to us. If you believe that your Content has been copied in a way that constitutes copyright infringement, please provide us with the following information: (i) a physical or electronic signature of the copyright owner or a person authorized to act on their behalf; (ii) identification of the copyrighted work claimed to have been infringed; (iii) identification of the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity and that is to be removed or access to which is to be disabled, and information reasonably sufficient to permit us to locate the material; (iv) your contact information, including your address, telephone number, and an email address; (v) a statement by you that you have a good faith belief that use of the materia l in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law; and (vi) a statement that the information in the notification is accurate, and, under penalty of perjury, that you are authorized to act on behalf of the copyright owner. – Last Accessed – 8/04/2014 [18] Supra n. (Alfred Bell) [19] Supra n.  ­__ at 345 [20] Rebecca Haas, Pg. 245 [21] Consuelo Reinberg. â€Å"Are Tweets Copyright- Protected?† WIPO Magazine, July 2009 [22] The concept of idea-expression being expressed in a limited number of ways is called the â€Å"Doctrine of Merger†, which will be discussed subsequently. [23] Section 14 of the Act lays down the rights that are exclusively granted to the owner of the copyright. Section 57 of the Act further defines two forms of ‘moral rights’ that are conferred on the author, right of paternity and integrity. The right of paternity is a right provided to the author which is the right to prevent others from claiming authorship of his work. Right of integrity enables the author to prevent mutilation or distortion of his work or any other act which would be prejudicial to his reputation and honor.

Identity in James Baldwin’s Stranger in the Village and Zora Neale Hurs

Identity in James Baldwin’s â€Å"Stranger in the Village† and Zora Neale Hurston’s â€Å"How it Feels to be Colored Me† Everyone has a story, a past experience that has built them up to be the person that they are today. In both James Baldwin’s â€Å"Stranger in the Village† and Zora Neale Hurston’s â€Å"How it Feels to be Colored Me† the presence of conflicting views in their stories holds a large impact on how they later develop as individuals. While Baldwin’s piece demonstrates the ignorance from society which is projected onto him from Swiss villagers, it shares both similarities and differences to the attitudes demonstrated in Hurston’s piece influenced by her surroundings. Being that it is difficult to escape the past and the events that have brought strength through triumph, it is important to focus one’s attention on the present and into the future. Although the past determines who an individual is, the future determines who an individual will become. James Baldwin holds the ability to push through negative affiliations in order to reach self establishment. As demonstrated in â€Å"Stranger in the Village,† Baldwin is simply just a black man who â€Å"was motivated by the need to establish an identity† (196). Through his desire of recognition as a human being rather than as an object, Baldwin is willing to look past the ignorance of the Swiss villagers and focus on defining himself. Greeted by the children’s calls of â€Å"Neger! Neger!,† Baldwin unintentionally finds himself reminiscing (191). Although the children’s label is not meant in a derogatory fashion, it causes Baldwin to surrender to the racial indifference of his past. Baldwin attempts to disregard his unpleasant reflection and justify the fact that change has been made. ... ...experiences and refocus his or her energy toward the future, however, through the works of both James Baldwin and Zora Neale Hurston, it is shown to be possible. Through their experiences they worked to develop their identities, and through the present they looked toward the future in order to reach establishment. It is true that everyone has a story; however, it is up to each individual to take that story and make it his or her own by creating an identity for him or herself. Works Cited Baldwin, James. â€Å"Stranger in the Village.† The Norton Reader. Ed. Linda H. Peterson and John C. Brereton. 11th ed. New York: Norton, 2004. 360-68. Hurston, Zora N. ""How It Feels to Be Colored Me." Grammar and Composition - Homepage of About Grammar and Composition. Web. 08 Dec. 2009. .

Nigerian Women in Nation Building Essay

Most times, the Nigerian woman is denied her right to womanhood and her dignity but nature made it that a woman holds the highest office in the nature and nurture of man though this is often negated by those men who think women are subservience to them. Women, just like men are created by God in His own image and likeness. That is to say, that they too are endowed with wisdom and knowledge, which men claim to be exclusively theirs. It is for this reason that men, have dominated the world at times, by force thereby, excluding women from nation building and development. Can these men really be afraid? And out of fear cling to power as if it is their prerogative and women have no say or place in it. Well, once a women is sold out in an early marriage, hers is ended as she is left with no other option but to bear children and take care of the home which most times is left ungovernable for her by her fellow women in the likes of her mother in-law and sisters in-law more so, if she fails to bear the desired children. That notwithstanding, when a woman has the opportunity to perform other tasks, she performs them excellently. Existing literatures suggest that even the less educated African woman is more pushy than her more educated counterpart who clings to her husband when it comes to taking charge of situations. WOMEN AS SEEN BY OTHERS: It is rather unfortunate that in spite of the tremendous roles played by women in the development of the nation, some people still believe that they are better seen than heard. However, the popular saying that â€Å"what a man can do a woman can do better† remains a reality and for this singular fact, the male faction are afraid of defeat hence their struggle for dominance. The little chances given to women so far, has proven them to be made of sterner stuff than their male counterparts. Women have always been able to manage their families at times, without the help of their husbands who still see them as weaker sex but the fact still remains that if you train a woman, you train a nation and this saying goes a long way to show the importance and relevance of women in the society. Because the woman is regarded the home maker, whenever the home is stable the credit goes to the woman who supervises the day to day running of the home by taking care of the children  from birth to adulthood while still doing other house chores. It becomes imperative therefore, that the woman helps mould the character of the children as they grow. The husband is not left out of this as the good and cheerful disposition of the man in public or office is attributed to the peace and tranquility he enjoys at home as a result of the woman’s care and love. Sometimes, when the home front is not so rosy, the woman is also, blamed since it is believed that the place of the woman is in the home as a facilitator of domestic activities or as an agent of procreation and for this, it was equally believed that the woman cannot make any meaningful contribution to the growth or development of the community and as such, the development of the country will be much too big for her. Nigeria like in most other African nations, culture and tradition relegated the woman to the background, only recognizing her as a second class citizen who can neither positively impact nor contribute to the growth of the nation and as such, the women is usually not recognize as a member of a family because from her father’s house, she goes to her husband ’s where she is equally not seen as a member of either. Most times in this case, the woman is disinherited as a daughter and as a wife. She has no legal claim to her father’s or husband’s property; at times, she’s deprived her right to vote and be voted for hence the limited number of women in elective positions. The woman bears the brunt when her husband dies especially if he is wealthy, she definitely killed to take possession of his money therefore, must be made to drink the water used in washing the corpse to prove her innocence. If the man dies, the woman is made to shave her hair and wear sack cloth for a designated number of months while the man does whatever it is he wants when the woman dies. The list of oppression faced by the womenfolk is unending but the fact remains that though the woman is always seen as the weaker sex, they are in actual fact, the stronger of the two genders but dominated by culture and tradition. In fact scholars are of the opinion that women share, by virtue of being women, a set of common experiences. These experiences though not derived from biological facts are their common experiences of oppression which come in different forms. In most communities in Nigeria, it is an abomination for a woman to want to take part in discussions on policies about community development. Her place is usually the kitchen so can only be seen and never heard. Most times, she is given limited opportunity  educationally and otherwise and usually sold out in marriage at early age, though this is no longer the case as most of them nowadays are given equal educational opportunity as their male siblings. WOMEN AS DEVELOPMENT AGENTS: Culture and Tradition may be seen as the major causes of the injustices meted out to women but we seem to forget that we are the medium and outcome of what we call tradition. This is because of the fact that though tradition shapes us, we are actually the ones who make tradition. Women though treated roughly by this so called culture and tradition, still remain the light of any nation as those that have not given women their rightful positions in politics and otherwise, still have a long way to go as they have not attained their desired heights. While those nations that have recognized the importance of women and given them the opportunity to function, have attained their full potentials. Countries such as USA and Britain are good examples of this. Women with their doggedness and desire for perfection, will always work to achieve their set goals if given the opportunity, not minding whose ox is gored while their male counterpart will work to gratify self and whoever assisted in putting in the office at the detriment of the masses. Women at the detriment of themselves and their families will work to ensure the safety of the nation she is given the opportunity to serve. Dora Akunyili is a good example, when she was the DG NAFDAC who even at the expense of her own life, was still fighting sub standard drugs unlike her successor (male) who backed down after a few threats to his life. The scriptures say, when the righteous are in power the people rejoice this is the case with women for whenever a woman is in power, there are great positive changes which in turn, makes the people better for it. NIGERIAN WOMEN WHO CONTRIBUTED TO NATION BUILDING: With the 1995 World Women Congress in Beijing, China, a new story began for women as opportunity was given to women especially in the area of education, and today in Nigeria, thirty five percent is claimed to be allotted to women in political and public offices though this is yet to be confirmed. However, the relevance and necessity of the active participation of women in nation building have always been proven as those who had the opportunity of proving themselves did so gallantly. The contributions of women such as Prof (Mrs.)  Grace Alele Williams, former Vice Chancellor of the University of Benin (UNIBEN); Prof (Mrs.) Bolanle Awe of the University of Ibadan (UI); the late Mrs. Jadesola Akande, former Vice Chancellor of Lagos State University (LASU) and those of our own Prof Chinyere Okunna and Prof Azuka Omenugha, of the Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka (UNIZIK) have turned the wheel of education in Nigeria. Their contributions have to a large extent, proved the capability, relia bility, integrity and dignity of women in nation building. Women, such as Chief (Mrs.) Folake Sholanke, the first woman Senior Advocate of Nigeria (SAN); Chief (Mrs.) Mariam Aloma Mukhtar the first female Chief Justice of Nigeria have shown themselves worthy of the title and a host of other Nigerian women legal luminaries who have contributed immensely to the protection of human and women rights and these contributions have assisted in ensuring justice for the common man. On the political scene, a lot of women such as the late Chief (Mrs.) Margret Ekpo, the late Adama Nwapa, Alhaja Sawaba Gambo, Leila Dongoyaro, Serah Jubril, Titi Ajanaku, Remi Adikwu-Bakere and a whole lot of others effectively challenged their male counterparts in politics and achieved a lot because it is based on their efforts that the new crop of women politicians presently in the National and State Houses of Assembly came into being. Most of the women who got appointed into political offices also proved their mettle and have continued to be sought after irrespective of the party in power. Women such as Chief (Mrs.) Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Obiageli Ezekwesili, Nenadi Usman, Arunma Otteh, Prof Dora Akunyili. These women, though in a male dominated regime, showcased their expertise as managers and were able to distinguish themselves thereby, contributing to the growth of the economy as their contributions were able to bring financial prudence, accountability and due process to public service; no wonder these women were respected and revered outside the shores of the nation and sometimes, regarded as ambassadors of the country. Some Nigerian women also contributed in showcasing the country to the outside world through their different works of art. The women include: Chief (Mrs.) Kuforiji Olubi, Chief (Mrs.) Olakurin, Christy Essien Igbokwe, Onyeka Onwenu, Mabel Segun and Chimamanda Adichie among others who in their various capacities assisted in the development of the country. There are lots and lots of Nigerian women who in one way or the other contributed to the growth of the country in many ways; showing that women  are neither lacking in vision nor leadership qualities but only have not been given the opportunity to showcase their capabilities in taking the country to greater heights. Changes can still happen in the political terrain of the nation, if our women are given equal opportunities as their male counterparts. If women are given more responsibilities in governance and other areas, changes can be achieved in all aspects of the Nigerian economy. If the thirty five percent female representation is religiously upheld, many women of integrity who will transform the country politically, economically and socially will be discovered to help fine tune the wheel of governance in Nigeria. The country may have remained in the doldrums of underdevelopment for the mere fact that our women have not been given the opportunity to help mould the fate of the na tion. CONCLUSION From the foregoing, it will be deduced that Nigerian women have proved their ability to take the country to the next level in both political and economic spheres. We are yet to be there since we still have so much to do before we can beat our chests with pride. The Nigerian woman is yet to be encouraged to participate more in the affairs of the nation. This should be done to enable her contribute her quota to the development of the country at all levels. She should be encouraged to show concern and commitment to the development the nation, as well as, offer themselves for service to their fatherland. The issue of gender equality should be regarded as the priority of the country so as to give Nigerian women equal opportunities to compete with their male counterparts in a more conducive environment. Our women should come together and fight as one for their rights so as to occupy positions of authority in the affairs of the country. They must continue to struggle to achieve their aim and not succumb to the weaker sex syndrome. Women leaders must be focused and they must be women of impeccable character who will be able to lead and perform creditably when given the opportunity. NGOs should be better organized to be able to mobilize for positive actions in every aspect of nation building. Government at all levels should be more disposed to assisting the women of the country in their struggle for emancipation and equality if their activities are in consonance with the norms and policies of the country. These and lots more will assist in  ensuring that the set goals of our great nation be achieved if unity of purpose, determination, solidarity and patriotism become our watchwords.

The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Essay

Throughout the course of one’s lifetime, there are countless events that shape the personality, actions and mentality of that individual. Some of these events will affect the individual in a positive way allowing great life opportunities, while other events will unfortunately affect the individual in a negative way which can lead to disorders. Among the various events that can affect a person, one of the most common occurrences that some children witness early on in their lives that deeply affect their long-term mental health is being a witness to domestic violence. Research and observations that were studied revealed that there are multiple factors that can contribute to a child witnessing domestic violence. The more categories that the†¦show more content†¦In order to conduct the research, twenty-nine children and their families were selected from 426 different areas within England, Wales and Scotland. Some parents refused to take part in the research, while 76% agr eed to be interviewed (Meltzer et al. 2009). The research that was organized determined that the violence affects different age groups and sexes in different ways. Through this article, we learn that infants who experience domestic violence have trouble sleeping and eating, while older children develop a change in behavior and anxiety (McFarlane et al. 2003; Hornor, 2005). Boys who experience violence in the home tend to be more aggressive and disobedient. While on the other hand, girls who experience violence in the home tend to be more introverted and depressed. Nonetheless, both genders are impacted negatively by domestic violence. The article also talks about different traumatic situations that a child experiences that can cause Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, aside from being a witness to domestic violence. These other incidents include being kidnapped, witnessing a death in the family, serious accidents and being physically or sexually abused themselves (Meltzer et al., 2009). Along with that, the factors that are intertwined with the abuse, which lead to the likelihood of a child being exposed to the violence were: [Children in an] older age group, mixed ethnicity, the presence of [a] physical disorder, four or more children lessShow MoreRelatedThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children1529 Words   |  7 PagesProject: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Trudy Root Kaplan University CM107-11 Children are negatively impacted by the surrounding of domestic violence in multiple ways, in which need to be identified. The audience that needs to be aware of domestic abuse’s effects on children is adults that care for children; such as pediatricians, teachers, counselors, and parents. The issue that needs to be addressed is the negative effects on children involved in a domestic violence situationRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children1387 Words   |  6 Pages Literature Review: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children By Taralyn Dean SW 8570 March 11, 2015 Introduction Today this paper will be exploring the affects of intimate partner domestic violence and how this impacts the children. The children of theses situations are the bystanders of these physical and emotional events. This paper will review in depth what other professionals are saying about the children of the domestic violence relationships and also the findings andRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children Essay1383 Words   |  6 PagesIn a similar study by Ybarra, Wilkens, Lieberman (2007) the goal was to determine if domestic violence leads to functioning shortfalls, and what its effects it has on a child’s behavioral and cognitive functioning. In homes where domestic violence happens, young children are more likely to witness violence than older children. It was hypothesized that children who witnessed violence at home had lower verbal capabilities, and would display greater internalizing and externalizing behaviors. ParticipantsRead MoreEffect of Domestic Violence on Children692 Words   |  3 PagesASSIGNMENT 1 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ID: S99003183; URIAM ROBATI ABSTRACT Domestic Violence has a great effect on children. Domestic violence also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse or child abuse is recognized as a pattern of abusive behavior by one or both partners especially those in marriage. This coercive behavior is used against another person to obtain power and control over the other party in a relationship. Domestic violence takes many forms such as physical violence which includesRead MoreDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Children1445 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is domestic Violence? Domestic Violence is described as violent or aggressive behavior within the home, typically involving the violent abuse of a spouse or partner. Many children end up being the victims to seeing domestic violence in the home which is very unhealthy to their development. Some children may development resentment toward both parents- one for not leaving and the other for causing the abuse. Depression, aggressive behavior, emotional distress and suicide depending on the severityRead MoreEffects of Domestic Violence on Children1124 Words   |  5 PagesThe biggest victims of domestic violence are the littlest. The home is a suppose to be a safe and secure environment for children with loving parents and free from violence. Children need a secure environment where they can come home to when the outside world is unsafe. However, every year there are millions of children who’s homes are not a safe haven. Millions of children are exposed to a parent being violently assaulted. Domestic violence is a prevalent social issue in America today. First, whoRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children And Children1541 Words   |  7 Pageslife. Domestic abused affect women and children. Lots of women are more at risk in their own home. Spouse abuses happen when one person in the marriage chooses to control the other party by using fair intimidation physical, emotional abuse. Domestic violence displaced many families because they are trying to get away from their abuser. Abuse can range from physical, mentally, emotional or psychological. One of every 5 woman are said to have experience an abuse from their partner. The effect of DomesticRead MoreEffects of Domestic Violence on Children908 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of Domestic Violence on Children by Mary Pelham English 1010-19 5 October 2011 Pelham i Outline I. Effects on younger children A. Feelings of deprivation Read MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children963 Words   |  4 PagesThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Many children witness domestic violence each day. Most times, children witness their mothers being abuse by their fathers, step-fathers, or mother’s boyfriends. According to Couchenour and Chrisman (2011), â€Å"Women and children are at greater risk of being victims of abuse than are men† (p. 131). Witnessing violence or being abused at home has serious effects on children. This article explains the short-term and long-term effects that domestic violence hasRead MoreEffects Of Domestic Violence On Children990 Words   |  4 Pagesexposed to domestic violence at an early age, that child adapts to these adverse circumstance and situations (Holmes, 2013). Therefore, children who are regularly exposed to domestic violence may initially display less aggressive behaviors than children who are never exposed. However, this is due to their fear of being a victim of a physical assault (Holmes, 2013). This finding was interesting because it shows how deeply the children are affe cted by exposure to domestic violence. The children become The Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children Essay Intro Domestic violence can often go unnoticed, unreported and undeterred before it’s too late. What most people don’t know is that is also the single largest cause of violence in United States (Sherman, Schmidt, Rogan,1992). Unfortunately, public outcry has only come in the aftermath of high profile cases being magnified through the media. Despite this post-measured reality, a general response to domestic violence (DV) and intimate partner violence (IPV) by the majority of the public is in line with what most consider unacceptable and with what the law considers legally wrong. Consider by many, more than just a social discrepancy, the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention currently classifies IPV and DV as a social health problem (CDC, 2014). When data collected at the national level provide reports that show 1 in 5 women being victims of severe physical violence in their lifetime (NISVS, 2010), we must ask ourselves if enough is being done to prevent this from occurri ng. From a historical point, there has always almost been a distinction from men on woman violence. Based on the disparity of cases reported, male inflicted violence on females is much higher and prevalent. When the perpetrators of DV, and IPV are predominately males, we can no longer dismissed this issue as a cultural, or psychological lapse in judgment. Currently the state of California requires all domestic violence offenders to take court order classes as a form of reprimand and in part to educateShow MoreRelatedThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children1529 Words   |  7 PagesProject: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Trudy Root Kaplan University CM107-11 Children are negatively impacted by the surrounding of domestic violence in multiple ways, in which need to be identified. The audience that needs to be aware of domestic abuse’s effects on children is adults that care for children; such as pediatricians, teachers, counselors, and parents. The issue that needs to be addressed is the negative effects on children involved in a domestic violence situationRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children1387 Words   |  6 Pages Literature Review: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children By Taralyn Dean SW 8570 March 11, 2015 Introduction Today this paper will be exploring the affects of intimate partner domestic violence and how this impacts the children. The children of theses situations are the bystanders of these physical and emotional events. This paper will review in depth what other professionals are saying about the children of the domestic violence relationships and also the findings andRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children Essay1383 Words   |  6 PagesIn a similar study by Ybarra, Wilkens, Lieberman (2007) the goal was to determine if domestic violence leads to functioning shortfalls, and what its effects it has on a child’s behavioral and cognitive functioning. In homes where domestic violence happens, young children are more likely to witness violence than older children. It was hypothesized that children who witnessed violence at home had lower verbal capabilities, and would display greater internalizing and externalizing behaviors. ParticipantsRead MoreEffect of Domestic Violence on Children692 Words   |  3 PagesASSIGNMENT 1 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ID: S99003183; URIAM ROBATI ABSTRACT Domestic Violence has a great effect on children. Domestic violence also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse or child abuse is recognized as a pattern of abusive behavior by one or both partners especially those in marriage. This coercive behavior is used against another person to obtain power and control over the other party in a relationship. Domestic violence takes many forms such as physical violence which includesRead MoreDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Children1445 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is domestic Violence? Domestic Violence is described as violent or aggressive behavior within the home, typically involving the violent abuse of a spouse or partner. Many children end up being the victims to seeing domestic violence in the home which is very unhealthy to their development. Some children may development resentment toward both parents- one for not leaving and the other for causing the abuse. Depression, aggressive behavior, emotional distress and suicide depending on the severityRead MoreEffects of Domestic Violence on Children1124 Words   |  5 PagesThe biggest victims of domestic violence are the littlest. The home is a suppose to be a safe and secure environment for children with loving parents and free from violence. Children need a secure environment where they can come home to when the outside world is unsafe. However, every year there are millions of children who’s homes are not a safe haven. Millions of children are exposed to a parent being violently assaulted. Domestic violence is a prevalent social issue in America today. First, whoRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children And Children1541 Words   |  7 Pageslife. Domestic abused affect women and children. Lots of women are more at risk in their own home. Spouse abuses happen when one person in the marriage chooses to control the other party by using fair intimidation physical, emotional abuse. Domestic violence displaced many families because they are trying to get away from their abuser. Abuse can range from physical, mentally, emotional or psychological. One of every 5 woman are said to have experience an abuse from their partner. The effect of DomesticRead MoreEffects of Domestic Violence on Children908 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of Domestic Violence on Children by Mary Pelham English 1010-19 5 October 2011 Pelham i Outline I. Effects on younger children A. Feelings of deprivation Read MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children963 Words   |  4 PagesThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Many children witness domestic violence each day. Most times, children witness their mothers being abuse by their fathers, step-fathers, or mother’s boyfriends. According to Couchenour and Chrisman (2011), â€Å"Women and children are at greater risk of being victims of abuse than are men† (p. 131). Witnessing violence or being abused at home has serious effects on children. This article explains the short-term and long-term effects that domestic violence hasRead MoreEffects Of Domestic Violence On Children990 Words   |  4 Pagesexposed to domestic violence at an early age, that child adapts to these adverse circumstance and situations (Holmes, 2013). Therefore, children who are regularly exposed to domestic violence may initially display less aggressive behaviors than children who are never exposed. However, this is due to their fear of being a victim of a physical assault (Holmes, 2013). This finding was interesting because it shows how deeply the children are affe cted by exposure to domestic violence. The children become The Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children Essay It is projected that children who have witnessed their parents abusing one another or experience abuse themselves sometimes resemble abused children, sometimes resemble comparison children, and sometimes fall between the two. This calls for people’s intervention if we will be able to foster a safe environment for our children to live in and spare them the trauma they have to go through by witnessing violence. A strong evidence shows that children and their families can be better supported by professionals who have undertaken training in responding to domestic violence, underpinned by clear protocols between agencies setting out their respective roles and responsibilities. For example, training of police officers can both dispel myths about the nature and seriousness of domestic violence as well as better equipping officers in how to respond effectively and helpfully (Eigenberg et al., 2012). More research is needed to find out where the majority of these children falls between the three groups mentioned as well as solutions that can work better for these children with immediate removal being used as the first action in such cases. As much as this issue has been researched, no thorough research has been conducted to unravel the resemblance of these children but basically their experiences. More research is also needed because children who grow up with abuse are expected to keep the family secret, sometimes not even talking to each other about the abuse. They are expected toShow MoreRelatedThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children1529 Words   |  7 PagesProject: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Trudy Root Kaplan University CM107-11 Children are negatively impacted by the surrounding of domestic violence in multiple ways, in which need to be identified. The audience that needs to be aware of domestic abuse’s effects on children is adults that care for children; such as pediatricians, teachers, counselors, and parents. The issue that needs to be addressed is the negative effects on children involved in a domestic violence situationRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children1387 Words   |  6 Pages Literature Review: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children By Taralyn Dean SW 8570 March 11, 2015 Introduction Today this paper will be exploring the affects of intimate partner domestic violence and how this impacts the children. The children of theses situations are the bystanders of these physical and emotional events. This paper will review in depth what other professionals are saying about the children of the domestic violence relationships and also the findings andRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children Essay1383 Words   |  6 PagesIn a similar study by Ybarra, Wilkens, Lieberman (2007) the goal was to determine if domestic violence leads to functioning shortfalls, and what its effects it has on a child’s behavioral and cognitive functioning. In homes where domestic violence happens, young children are more likely to witness violence than older children. It was hypothesized that children who witnessed violence at home had lower verbal capabilities, and would display greater internalizing and externalizing behaviors. ParticipantsRead MoreEffect of Domestic Violence on Children692 Words   |  3 PagesASSIGNMENT 1 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ID: S99003183; URIAM ROBATI ABSTRACT Domestic Violence has a great effect on children. Domestic violence also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse or child abuse is recognized as a pattern of abusive behavior by one or both partners especially those in marriage. This coercive behavior is used against another person to obtain power and control over the other party in a relationship. Domestic violence takes many forms such as physical violence which includesRead MoreDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Children1445 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is domestic Violence? Domestic Violence is described as violent or aggressive behavior within the home, typically involving the violent abuse of a spouse or partner. Many children end up being the victims to seeing domestic violence in the home which is very unhealthy to their development. Some children may development resentment toward both parents- one for not leaving and the other for causing the abuse. Depression, aggressive behavior, emotional distress and suicide depending on the severityRead MoreEffects of Domestic Violence on Children1124 Words   |  5 PagesThe biggest victims of domestic violence are the littlest. The home is a suppose to be a safe and secure environment for children with loving parents and free from violence. Children need a secure environment where they can come home to when the outside world is unsafe. However, every year there are millions of children who’s homes are not a safe haven. Millions of children are exposed to a parent being violently assaulted. Domestic violence is a prevalent social issue in America today. First, whoRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children And Children1541 Words   |  7 Pageslife. Domestic abused affect women and children. Lots of women are more at risk in their own home. Spouse abuses happen when one person in the marriage chooses to control the other party by using fair intimidation physical, emotional abuse. Domestic violence displaced many families because they are trying to get away from their abuser. Abuse can range from physical, mentally, emotional or psychological. One of every 5 woman are said to have experience an abuse from their partner. The effect of DomesticRead MoreEffects of Domestic Violence on Children908 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of Domestic Violence on Children by Mary Pelham English 1010-19 5 October 2011 Pelham i Outline I. Effects on younger children A. Feelings of deprivation Read MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children963 Words   |  4 PagesThe Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Many children witness domestic violence each day. Most times, children witness their mothers being abuse by their fathers, step-fathers, or mother’s boyfriends. According to Couchenour and Chrisman (2011), â€Å"Women and children are at greater risk of being victims of abuse than are men† (p. 131). Witnessing violence or being abused at home has serious effects on children. This article explains the short-term and long-term effects that domestic violence hasRead MoreEffects Of Domestic Violence On Children990 Words   |  4 Pagesexposed to domestic violence at an early age, that child adapts to these adverse circumstance and situations (Holmes, 2013). Therefore, children who are regularly exposed to domestic violence may initially display less aggressive behaviors than children who are never exposed. However, this is due to their fear of being a victim of a physical assault (Holmes, 2013). This finding was interesting because it shows how deeply the children are affe cted by exposure to domestic violence. The children become

Courses to Consider When Applying to Law School

If you are considering applying to law school it might be a relief to know that, generally speaking, there are no required courses for admission to law school. Law students come with a variety of different majors, but admissions officers want to see well-rounded applicants who have a broad range of knowledge. Choose a major and courses that are challenging and interesting to you—and do well. Below are some courses that will help you develop into a well-rounded applicant and prepare you to succeed in law school. History, Government, and Politics: The Backbone of Law The study of history, government and politics are interwoven with the field of law. Therefore it is imperative in applying to law school that you are able to showcase some demonstratable knowledge of the government and history of the law schools country of origin. So, if you plan to apply to school within the United States, it is recommended that you take an undergrad course in United States History, or for a broader sense of how the countrys laws fit in with the rest of the globe, consider taking a World History course. Similarly, Economics and Government courses would benefit your displayable knowledge in the basic function of laws within a country. Typically these courses are prerequisites for graduation anyway, but you should also seek out some not on core curriculum.   If you plan on pursuing a career in immigration law, for instance, it might behoove you to take a course in Immigration Law (if offered) or a specific history course pertaining to the country of origin from which immigrants you wish to help come. Jurisprudence, Taxation Law, and Family Law courses also offer specifics into politics and government and would look great if you were applying to programs that heavily focus on those pursuits. Writing, Thinking, and Public Speaking: Expressing the Law A career as a lawyer is all about  critical thinking, writing and speaking. It is therefore important to also consider taking classes that offer opportunities for extensively critiqued writing, debate and speaking publicly. These courses will immerse the student in a curriculum that challenges him or her to think outside the box. Almost all law students take debate before entering grad school, which provides ample experience of critical applying the students understanding of laws and policy in a public forum. In doing so, students are afforded the chance to truly test their applicable understanding of basic policies in an environment akin to a courtroom. English, Literature, Public Policy and Speaking, and Creative Writing can also influence the students ability to debate and eventually to take to the courtroom. Enrolling in these classes will show admissions officers that you, the student, possess the drive to understand the basic fundaments of being a lawyer. But it doesnt end with simply taking courses that speak directly to being a lawyer. Hopeful law students should also enroll in courses that examine the vastly interesting dynamics of human behavior—which much of law is concerned with. Anthropology, Sociology and even Religious Studies can go to influence what a future law student will be able to comprehend in regards to how their laws and policies affect the global, national and local population. Similarly, Criminology and Sociology can help to show admissions officers that the student has a complete understanding of how the law works from a societal standpoint. It is important to remember that you pay for college and should be garnering an experience that suits your wants and needs.  Most of these courses form the backbone of a solid undergraduate liberal arts education. Choose challenging courses that fit your interests and aspirations. Equally important though is to show admissions officers that you are a rounded student with multiple interests that all (or mostly) lead back to the pursuit of a career in law.

Marketing Report Mcdonald s Family - 917 Words

Scott Bennet Marketing Report McDonalds 2014 Ec1400633 Introduction The following report is on the named organisation McDonalds. The McDonald’s family was founded by Raymond Albert Croc in 1940. The first ever store was built in 1955 which was situated Des Plaines, Illinois. The McDonald’s headquarters in also located in Illinois. McDonalds turned into the biggest restaurant business in the world. There are now over 30000 restaurants that serve 47 million customers in more than 121 countries. The marketing concept is the philosophy that companies must analyse the needs of their consumers and make choices to fulfil these needs, better than their competitors. Today, the majority of companies have embraced the marketing concept, however this has not always been the situation. Achievements:- McDonald s has been known as a great place to work in more than 30 of the markets as how they go about their business. †¢ In 2013, Forbes names McDonald’s number six as the â€Å"World’s Most Valuable Brand† and was also named number seven as the â€Å"World’s Most Powerful Brand†. †¢ Fortune named McDonald’s number twenty two as the â€Å"World’s Most Admired Company† †¢ McDonalds was named as the â€Å"World’s Best Multinational Workplaces† in 201. Strategic Plan:- McDonalds are hoping to open 400 new Drive-thru stores in the next 10 years. As McDonalds is an emergent success, the goal is to rise the pace of attainments with a target of 40 new restaurant openings annually as of 2014.Show MoreRelated The Concept of Corporate Social Responsibility Essays1687 Words   |  7 Pagesgrowing, increasing numbers of organisations are incorporating CSR into their business operations in an effort to be seen acting as good corporate citizens, so what is CSR what is its role in todays organizations? The term CSR refers to a company?s obligation to maximize its positive impact on society, accommodating changing social, market stakeholder pressures in an effort to achieve sustainable economic, social environmental development throughout its operations and activities. CSR putsRead MoreMcdonalds Marketing Mix1486 Words   |  6 PagesMarketing Mix The elements of the Marketing Mix refer to the tools that will be employed in the marketing efforts of a product, service or concept, to a particular targeted or segmented group. If the right Marketing Mix is used, it will aim all of the company’s efforts at satisfying it’s customers at a profit or other notable success. A typical Marketing Mix includes â€Å"The four P’s†, which are product, price, promotion, place and sometimes people. Since consumers are surrounded by the controllableRead MorePromotional Strategy And Effective Marketing Communication1002 Words   |  5 PagesPromotional Strategy Chapter 12 in our textbook talks about promotional strategy and effective marketing communication. It defines certain fundamentals that make up the promotion mix. These basics include direct and interactive marketing, advertising, public relations, sales promotion, and personal selling. The promotional strategy used depends on the marketplace. Sometimes it is necessary to use more than one media method within a given campaign. (Marshall/Johnston, 2015) Traditional promotionRead MoreMc Donalds Maketing Strategies Essay1527 Words   |  7 Pagesand Mac McDonald. 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Reliability Analysis of Piston Manufacturing free essay sample

Introduction Several researchers have used fault tree analysis (FAT) method to analyze the vast majority of industrial system reliability problems. FAT is a deductive failure analysis which focuses on one particular undesired event and which provides a method for determining cause of this event [1]. Factors that contribute to the events are traced to the smallest sub-divisions termed as basic events. The cascading effects of several sub-systems may be linked together and multiple effects may be captured through logical AND and OR relationships. Head event probability is determined from basic events in the fault tree. Tanana and Fan [2] presented the approach based on a fuzzy fault tree model and determined the maximum possibility of system failure from the usability of failure of each component within the system according to the extension principle. Hessian et al. [3] discussed FAT for system design, development, modification, and verification. Geometry and Beckon [4] discussed the application of knowledgeableness and a methodology for the assessment and measurement of reliability, availability, maintainability, and safety of industrial systems using fault tree representation. We will write a custom essay sample on Reliability Analysis of Piston Manufacturing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Schweitzer et al. [5] discussed reliability analysis of transmission protection using fault tree methods. Chaos and Sheen [6] discussed FAT of dust suppression mechanism in a spray system with wetting agent. King [7] investigated and compared a set of existing component importance measures and select the most informative and appropriate one for guiding the maintenance of the system. Change et al. [8] proposed a new approach by combining the FAT and FEMME and the reactor systems reliability was analyzed quantitatively. Hong et al. [9] studied the reliability assessment of protection system for switchboard using FAT. Choc and Choc [10] discussed a practical method for accurate quantification of large fault trees. Hoist and Lu [1 1] studied risk informed design refinement of a power system protection chem.. Volcanism et al. [12] discussed application of the fault tree analysis for assessment of Journal of Reliability and Statistical Studies, December 2011, Volvo. 4 (2) power system reliability. Zen]ii et al. 13] studied reliability evaluation of flood releasing structures power supply of hydroelectric power station by FAT. In this paper, fault tree method is used to analyze the reliability of piston manufacturing system. Also, risk reduction worth is adopted as a measure of importance for identifying the crucial element that has significant impact on the reliability. This paper is organized as follows: In section 2, some basic concepts are described. In section 3, piston manufacturing system is discu ssed. In section 4, fault trees for piston manufacturing system are constructed. In section 5, quantitative analysis of piston manufacturing system is presented. The conclusion is discussed in section 6. 2. FAT Basic Concepts In this section, some basic concepts of FAT are presented [1 , 14]. 2. 1 Fault Tree Symbols [1]. Top Event: An undesired state of a system caused by events occurring within the system or in the system environment. Top event is represented by cetacean. Intermediate Event: An intermediate event is a fault event which occurs from a combination of other events via logic gates. Intermediate event is also represented by rectangle. Basic Event: The circle describes a basic initiating fault event that requires no further development. In other words, it signifies that the appropriate limit of resolution has been reached. Undeveloped Event: An event which is not further developed either because it is of insufficient consequence or because information is unavailable. OR Gate: Output fault occurs if at least one of the input faults occurs. AND Gate: Output fault occurs if all of the input faults occur. 2. Minimal Cut Set Minimal cut sets ( MASC. s ) constitute the simplified fault tree through the Boolean operation. To determine the MASC. s of a fault tree, the tree is first transformed to its equivalent Boolean equations and then either the top-down or bottom-up substitution method is used [1]. Any fault tree consists of a finite number of MASC. s , which are unique for the top event. The minimal cut set expression for the top event can be written in the general form, k Top MASC. Reliability Analysis of Piston Manufacturing System 45 where of MACS Top is the top event and M n minimal cut set and k is the number . Each minimal cut set consists of combination of specific basic events and hence in general n component minimal cut set can be expressed as n where X I is the I the basic event and n is the number of basic events in a minimal cut set. 2. 3 Risk Reduction Worth (RAW) One significant quantity in the reliability assessment is the measures of importance. One may obtain the importance of elements influencing reliability by RAW as well as know where the weakness of the system is.